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法国68年五月风暴 毛主义曾蔚为风尚

Tsai Hsiao-ying

1968322日,法国巴黎南泰尔大学(巴黎第十大学)学生要求男女宿舍互访遭拒,100多名学生佔领校长办公室,警力最终以包围校区、驱离抗议学生来止息这场抗争,然而星星之火68风暴已开始燎原,谁也没有料想到,这一导火线会在五月引发惊天动地的社会风暴。s

68年五月风暴事件发展,可分成三部分:第一阶段从53日到13日当局执意关闭南泰尔大学,索邦大学(巴黎第四大学)立即出手声援的学生大罢课。第二阶段是513日到27日,800 万到 1000 万工人等不同社会阶层参加游行抗议行动,学生罢课,工人罢工,并于530日在香榭丽舍大街举行反戴高乐政府的大游行。第三阶段,从527630日,戴高乐总统解散国会,6月改选,保守阵营拿下超过四分之三席次,68学运终告瓦解。s

一场学生运动将迅速扩展为一场遍布全国的政治社会运动,这是西方社会第一次出现真正的『青年世代』,巴黎第一次有百万人在街头抗争,也是法国第一次有千万人发动罢工,在意识形态领域,五月运动的最大的贡献是对权威的挑战,认知到权威并不是天生的,必须通过努力争取。s

事前毫无任何征兆卻发生一场惊天动地的事件,完全超乎任何人的想像,包括法国人自己。五月风暴是一个新时代的群众运动,但是,它却使用十九世纪的马克思主义的话语来表达自己的需求。马克思主义的术语在运动中及运动后广为流行,但法国共产党以及它所领导的工会团体,运动的初期甚至还采取敌视的态度对待学生,无法掌握社会脉动,使它的政治影响力在五月风暴中受到严重挫败,从此一蹶不振。s

当时参与运动的分子复杂,诉求也分歧。法国巴黎社会科学高等研究院教授潘鸣啸(Michel Bonnin )应台湾龙应台基金会邀请演讲时分析:“光是在学生之中,有无政府主义者、托派、毛派,也有一些学生根本没有参加什麽派。”无政府主义者与国际造势主义者(L’internationale situationniste)坚持此时此地的斗争,强调在大学的内部反对大学的必要;而托洛斯基派与毛派分子则主张将眼光投射至第三世界的革命。这些在政治光谱上潜存的对手,却共生共存,形成了一个真正的整体。“s

虽然法国共产党因为毛主义者人数少,贬称之为一个小派别(groupuscule),一个小团体而已,但毛泽东思想的口号,3M(马克思、毛泽东、马库塞)成为巴黎学生们的思想旗帜,五月风暴的参与者曾经头戴绿军帽、身穿绿军装、臂戴红袖标,毛泽东的巨幅画像高举在游行行列中,高呼马克思主义。s

毛主义在当时成为一种时尚,当时18岁的白夏(Jean-Philippe Béja ),现在已是巴黎政治学院教授,他在法广RFI描述当年也“ 认为造反有理,根本不了解中国文化大革命是怎麽回事,文革是1966年发动的,但是外界根本不知道中国国内究竟在搞什麽”,“ 我们当时又年轻,又不懂中文,对中国一点儿也不了解。虽然有人组织了马列组织,但是他们事实上在运动中并没有发挥多大的作用,我们根本不知道毛泽东究竟做了些什麽,只是知道造反有理,年轻人站起来了,等等类似的标语,觉得非常有吸引力。但是,对文革究竟是什麽内容根本不了解”。s

所有左派、极左派知识圈全盘地接收毛主义,法国政府压制左派的《人民事业报》,让保罗·萨特(Jean-Paul Sartre )挺身而出接管毛主义,反抗政府独断政治清扫行动 ,甚至亲自上街去叫卖《人民事业报》,其照片遍登法国各大报,他四处奔波演讲,鼓励青年人造反、革命、性解放,打破一切规矩和限制。s

他和西蒙娜··波伏娃(Simone de Beauvoir)最喜欢的学生口号是“把禁止禁止掉”,就是要像中国的红卫兵那样,打破一切秩序、法律和道德,要建立一个像苏联和中国那样的“新社会”。这对革命伙伴五十年代曾访问苏联,回来就说苏共的好话,为共产主义辩护。卡斯特罗、毛泽东等独裁者还邀萨特做客,他回囯后就称赞共产古巴“是一种直接的民主制”;对毛的共产中国,尤其文化大革命,更是赞不绝口。s

滚石乐队主唱米克·贾格尔(Mick Jagger)一度中断巴黎体育馆(Palais des Sports Stadium)的演出,请求释放被拘捕的毛主义者,着名知识分子—米歇尔·福柯(Michel Foucault)以及菲利普·索莱斯(Philippe Sollers)和茱莉亚·克里斯蒂娃(Julia Kristeva)企图从毛主义中察觉到一种创造性方法,用以解决法国当时令人难以忍受的政治保守主义。s

年青人崇拜越南抵抗美帝的胡志明、武元甲将军,革命的拉丁美洲的卡斯特罗和切·格瓦拉,以及国际共产运动的复苏斗争的象征毛泽东和红卫兵,尤其马克思主义哲学家路易·阿尔都塞(Louis Althusser)的学生们认同毛泽东领导下的中国。理查德·维南(Richard Vinen)在《漫长的1968:激进的抗议者与他们的敌人》(The Long ’68: Radical Protest and its Enemies)书中指出,中国变成“光辉灿烂的乌托邦未来”的化身,通过“生成中国人”(becoming Chinese),通过采取中国红卫兵之法国化身的新身份,他们逐渐地将其视为医治法国本土各种政治弊端的灵丹妙药。s

强调自己“是左派,但不是毛派”的潘鸣啸说:“当时法国的毛派有两种完全不一样的,有一种完全是非常正统的,我们叫马列主义法共。在1963年中共跟苏共分裂的时候,大部分法共就跟着苏联,可是有一部分跟着中国,那些人就叫做『马列法共』。可是那些人是非常教条主义的,而且他们一开始就反对五月学运,因为他们认为这是小资产阶级的事”。s

另外一种毛派则是『自发毛派』,这是没有纪律、没有组织的,他们后来自己成立了一些组织,但是和中共的关係不是很密切的。无政府主义者、马列法共、自发毛派根本没有统一的意识型态,不过他们有一个相同的信念,叫做『伟大的晚上』,就是一夜之间就能把整个制度完全改变了。他们还有这种盼望、或者说这种幻想。很多老百姓都支持这个运动,但他们也不希望把整个制度打垮了,因为没有一种制度、或者一个政治力量,可以代替现状。”s

毛主义和红宝书成了许多激进青年的精神武装,中国红卫兵和造反派们的“四大”、“串连”等方式也成为他们组织和发动社会力量的不二法门。当时许多人以为,“文革”是有无政府主义倾向的,是人民自发起来反抗寡头政治的斗争,正如他们中许多人后来回忆的那样,他们头脑里“造反”的概念,就跟法国大革命攻打巴士底狱差不多。s

当时已经开始学习中文的白夏,“比较推崇毛泽东提出的口号”。但是,不久之后,“我就对毛主义提出了怀疑,到69年,我就不相信毛了”。s

潘鸣啸则指出,五月风暴和文革的最大差别在于法国是自发的,中国红卫兵则是“奉旨造反”,是听毛泽东的命令行动的。潘鸣啸认为,外界都会形容,这一代长大的中国人是“喝狼奶”,从小学着残酷、学着斗争,相较起来,法国当时很大部分的运动参与者是在重再现法国大革命、人民公社的精神,这些都是非暴力的,“民主的社会较难支持暴力行动,反而在中国这非常可行,像当时如果不参与一起打老师,反而变成你会被打”。s

不过,白夏觉得,六八年的法国大学生同当年中国的红卫兵有些共同点,他们也是有理想的,认为民主,平等是至关重要的,他们中有的人今天还坚信这些。s

法国着名社会运动学者阿兰·涂汉(Alain Tourain)曾分析法国五月的学运成功地将政治上的抗争与文化上的反叛,二者结合成为一种社会的运动,毕竟国家宰制整个经济生活与社会运作时,文化的反叛成为抵抗权力的一种斗争方式。他也就运动中的毛主义时尚强调,“五月风暴就是以旧的形式,表达出新的东西的运动,正如《圣经》所言,是旧瓶装新酒。他们之所以向往中国的红卫兵,与其说是出于对这一运动的了解,毋宁说是出于对它的无知。”这便如同马克思对巴黎公社的论述:巴黎公社的新意是工人运动的产生,但口号却是法国大革命的话语。s

《东风:法国知识分子与20世纪60年代的遗产》一书的作者理查德·沃林(Richard Wolin )也说明,毛主义者开始是政治教条主义者、虔诚信仰者,但是他们很快发现他们不可能调和他们亲华的“意识形态眼罩”(ideological blinder)与“五月风暴”的解放精神。一旦他们不再以革命口号欺骗自己,他们就开始以全新的视角来理解政治。因此文化革命的观念完全被改变了,它不再是一个中国独有的参照点,它反而逐渐代表一种思考政治的全新方法:这种方法放弃夺取政治权力的目标,反而试图在习俗、习惯、性征、性别角色和一般社会交往中发起一场民主革命。最终,左派分子开始意识到人权和自由社会主义的价值并非反向作用的,而是互补的。s

五月风暴没有在政治上立刻取得具体成果,而且众多的政治诉求反而让当时法国左派更加分裂。但一些学者指出,“学生无罪,造反有理”的五月风暴,解放了保守的法国社会,百花齐放的思想也改变了法国的历史风尚,政治社会空间更开放,民主参与意识更强烈,人们意识到自己可以掌握自己的命运。s

虽然今天法国社会对五月风暴的精神以及社会遗产依然存在着激烈的争议,法国前总统萨科齐甚至曾经呼吁推翻五月风暴的思想遗产,认为该运动对法国社会造成消极的影响。潘鸣啸提到,当法国来到70年代时,对社会主义的很多幻想都破灭了,大家只好面对事实,认知道革命是不可能的,因为力量不够、代价太高了,所以转而追求改革。但是,無論如何,如同法国学者形容: 五月以后的法国生活变得性感了。s

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